Putting a Harness on Gaia
Jeni Robinson, Geneviieve Robinson & Jay Norris
Abstract
Traditional outdoor activities, such as tree climb, pole climb and zip-wire are found in most activity centres and are used for fun and personal development. Environmental education often takes the form of field studies. This paper is concerned with the use of traditional outdoor activities to deliver environmental learning outcomes to primary school children and focuses on the Residential Outdoor Education Experience (ROEE) programme run at Scottish Outdoor Education Centres.
The ROEE programme is based on Lovelock’s Gaia theory; that the biotic and abiotic parts of the planet have evolved to regulate the climate and chemistry of the earth in favour of life, and uses current pedagogical theories to maximise learning. The four learning outcomes of the ROEE programme are:
- Increased environmental awareness
- Increased understanding of concepts such as food webs and natural selection
- Increased appreciation and understanding of each person’s place in the environment
- Increased confidence to make decisions affecting the environment
Children stay for a week. The week is divided into activity sessions. Each activity session has its own learning outcomes, which contribute towards an overall environmental project. Each activity is followed by a review. The aim of the review is to guide higher level thinking, which has an impact on subconscious beliefs and values and may lead to individuals making sustainable future choices based on their own values.
Keywords: environmental education, education for sustainability, outdoor activities, Gaia, Scottish Outdoor Education Centres.
Introduction
“It is about values, attitudes, ethics and actions. It is not a subject or “add-on” [sic].
Nor is it an option. It is a way of thinking and a way of practice.
It is a positive contribution to counteract the “doom and gloom” and helplessness that many feel about the enormity of environmental and social problems.
It is certainly more than recycling, composting and keeping earthworms.”
Davis (1998), cited in Lloyd, 2008) describes an understanding of Education for Sustainability (EfS).
The 2005-2015 UN Decade for Education for Sustainability” (United Nations General Assembly adopted Resolution 57/254, 2002) identifies that the key to a sustainable future is education. “Our biggest challenge in this new century is to take an idea that is abstract – sustainable development- and turn it into reality for all the worlds’ people.” (Kofi Annan, cited in Lloyd, 2008). But integrating Education for Sustainability into the mainstream curricula is challenging as EfS has no precedent in the current education.
Nagel (2004), cited in Lloyd, (2008) stresses the importance of environmental education of previous generations as a starting point to investigate the weaknesses and strengths of past experience. Research into levels of eco-literacy of students and teachers in schools is scarce but what exists points to a “lack of ‘earth-literacy’ or ‘eco-awareness’ amongst both the current leaders and the new generation” (SE, 2006: 8, cited in Lloyd, 2008). Nagel (2004), cited in Lloyd, (2008) also found that no single subject can deliver EfS, especially if it is considered that “all education is environmental education” (Orr, 2004, cited in Lloyd, (2008) and that “we are failing in our duties to the young” by “continue[ing] to educate [ ] as if there [was] no planetary emergency” (Orr, 2004: xiii-2, cited in Lloyd, 2008). The Intergovernmental Conference on Environmental Education held at Tblisi in 1977, states: “education is critical for promoting sustainable development and improving the capacity for people to address environment and development issues [ ] It is also critical for achieving environmental and ethical awareness, values and attitudes, skills and behaviour consistent with sustainable development” (UNESCO, 1992: 36.3, cited in Lloyd, 2008).
Given the already high demands on the time and content of school curricula, where and when can EfS be included?
Traditional outdoor activities, such as tree climb, pole climb and zip-wire are found in most activity centres and are used for both inter and intra-personal development and for fun. Environmental Education often takes the form of field studies and deals with ecosystemic and ekistic relationships. Priest and Gass (1997) say that “while adventure and environmental education are commonly thought of as separate areas, it can clearly be seen that neglect of the environmental side of environmental education threatens the very naturalness and solitude you and your clients seek in the outdoors.” This paper is concerned with the use of traditional outdoor activities to deliver environmental learning outcomes to primary school children. The paper focuses on the Residential Outdoor Education Experience (ROEE) programme run at Scottish Outdoor Education Centres (SOEC).
SOEC delivers two main residential courses, as well as other groups and events. The first, Transitions, is concerned with the move between primary and secondary school. This allows P7 (final year primary) children from a cluster group of primary schools who will be feeding into the same secondary school to meet and share experiences. The children participate in tailored outdoor activities and build up life skills, such as confidence and independence.
The second programme is ROEE which is based on Lovelock’s 1979 Gaia theory (Lovelock, 2000). Broadly speaking, Gaia is a theory which states that the biotic and abiotic parts of the planet have evolved to regulate the climate and chemistry of the earth in favour of life. The programme is designed using current pedagogical theories to maximise learning. The four learning outcomes of the ROEE programme are:
- Increased environmental awareness
- Increased understanding of concepts such as food webs and natural selection
- Increased appreciation and understanding of each person’s place in the environment
- Increased confidence to make decisions affecting the environment
These learning outcomes are achieved by applying a framework of learning around traditional outdoor activities, but it is not sufficient to simply raise awareness; “we cannot win this battle to save species and environments without forging an emotional bond between ourselves and nature- for we will not fight to save what we do not love.” (Gould (1991), cited in Lloyd, 2008). The ROEE programme aims to facilitate the development of values and beliefs towards the environment, with the aim of affecting behaviour and developing individuals who can use their own values to make sustainable choices in the future.
Why use Lovelock’s Gaia theory?
The ROEE programme is aimed at 10-12 year olds, an age at which children naturally focus on small aspects of their surroundings, such as patterns or insects. The concept of Gaia, however, is huge. Taken to its limits, it concerns the relationship of a planet within the universe, a concept which can be difficult to visualise, especially for children. However to leave children with a lack of understanding of the world around them will affect the choices they make in their everyday life and the future.
Children are encouraged to explore the natural environment in many ways. Sessions are structured and use a combination of close observations, sensory experiences and adventure activities which lead children on a journey of discovery, engaging their attention at an appropriate level and aiming to encourage a learning situation which will stimulate a higher level of thinking.
What is the Gaia theory?
In the 1970’s James Lovelock was part of the team working for NASA looking for life on other planets. In order to recognise life on other planets they needed to determine how to recognise life when they found it. To do this Lovelock turned to earth to try and define life, in doing so he discovered that the earth has a set of unique conditions that support life. He came up with the theory that the biotic and abiotic parts of earth are involved in regulating planetary processes which maintain conditions favourable for life: “Gaia is best thought of as a super-organism…A bee’s nest is a super-organism and like the super-organism, Gaia, it has the capacity to regulate its temperature” (Lovelock, 1995).
A model of regulation – Daisyworld
- Daisyworld is a simplified model of the earth
- Daisyworld has water, more in proportion to the land than there is today
- Carbon dioxide is present in the atmosphere
- There are a range of colours of daisies from dark to light with neutral colours in between
- The daisies have an optimum temperature range for their species to grow, there are about 20 species in this simplified planet
- The mean temperature of Daisy world is determined by the colour of the earth – the albedo
This is the example given as to how the earth could be self regulated by living organisms in order to maintain an environment able to support life by influencing the temperature. Moreover, geochemists have gathered evidence that shows ‘the earth’s crust, oceans and air to be either directly the product of living things or else massively modified by their presence.’ (Lovelock, 1995). This shows that Gaia is a manifestation of life. Gaia is a tightly coupled system of life and its environment. There are 4 main components that make this up:
- Living organisms that grow vigorously, exploiting any environmental opportunities that open.
- Organisms that are subject to the rules of Darwinian natural selection.
- Organisms that affect their physical and chemical environment.
- The existence of constraints or bounds that establish the limits of life.
(Lovelock, 1995).
The fourth one is the most interesting as it is the source of models of self regulation. Put in simple terms, everything is connected and humans are living organisms on this earth that exist and influence the environment. According to Lovelock (1995) “Organisms that can change their environment, adversely tend to become extinct.” But if the environment can be affected in a detrimental way then it can also be affected in a positive way.
Environmental education has focused on the study of species and habitats while at the same time raising awareness of the impact of resource use. As Said et al. (2007) observed “environmental education had raised environmental consciousness but was ineffective at changing action and behaviour patterns.”
The challenge here is to change actions and patterns of behaviour. Engaging children in such a way that facilitates their relationship with the earth can enhance their understanding of their role within it. This should happen at a time in their life when they are starting to formulate their own values and beliefs.
What does Gaia mean to a 10 year old?
“No problem can be solved from the same consciousness that created it.
We have to learn to see the world anew.”
Albert Einstein (cited in Lloyd, 2008)
As a concept it is worth understanding the vast and sometimes tumultuous consequences we as a species can have on the earth. From another angle the concept of Gaia illustrates the ways our material world can be influenced and the climate regulated in favour of life.
The learning outcomes for the ROEE programme are:
- Increased environmental awareness
- Increased understanding of concepts such as food webs and natural selection
- Increased appreciation and understanding of each person’s place in the environment
- Increased confidence to make decisions affecting the environment.
These can be broken down into concepts or links which are pertinent to both children and Gaia. The ROEE programme encourages children to learn about their environment, the main focus is to build a relationship between the child and their environment, to understand environmental interconnections and to create values. Blooms Revised Taxonomy shows the progression of learning that can take place. In order to create values some learning must take place. Values are created when a person receives and responds to the world and other people, understanding the effect they have on their environment and understands the influence of their environment on them. If a connection can be made between a child and their ecosystem then the seed of understanding has been planted.
“Direct experience of the complex interdependence of life on earth enables reinforcement of the link between cognitive and affective learning, providing a bridge to understanding. This gives learners a real context to explore, develop and apply the values of wisdom, integrity, compassion and justice.” (The Outdoor Connections Scottish Executive and the Learning + Teaching Scotland on Values).
Bloom’s Revised Taxonomy (Forehand, 2005) states three ways of learning; cognitive (head: thoughts, science), affective (heart: emotions, values, beliefs) and kinaesthetic (hands: physical skills, movement). Outdoor learning brings all these together, but to maximise learning the outcomes must relate to a concept familiar to the child. The sessions then progress consistent with the structure of Joseph Cornell’s Flow Learning theory. Flow learning has four stages which need to be followed in sequence; awaken enthusiasm, focus attention, direct experience, share inspiration.
Ideally a session at SOEC will have this sequence:
Frontloading→ Small Activities→ Adventure Activity→ Session Review→ Feedback
To begin with, a concept drawn from the learning outcomes needs to be identified for the session. Following Cornell’s Flow Learning the first stage engages the children through playfulness and being alert. Time is spent creating an atmosphere of curiosity, amusement or personal interest. Having got the children having fun and engaging with the subject matter their attention then needs to be focussed. The next activities aim to challenge a child through fun and creativity, often the challenges involve focussing on one of their physical senses and in doing so the child becomes more calm, observant and receptive to their surroundings. Once the interests have been awakened and focussed Cornell’s flow learning leads us on to the stage where children can deeply experience nature, these activities are absorbing and experiential; they help to discover a deep, inner sense of belonging and understanding through being directly involved with nature.
Cornell (1998) argues that “if people are to develop a love and concern for the earth, they need these direct experiences; otherwise, their knowing remains remote and theoretical and never touches them deeply.” Ideally this leads to children sharing experiences, which increases learning for the entire group (Cornell, 1998).
An example of this method being used can be seen in the tree climb session. One or several learning outcomes are identified that could be applicable to the session. This example looks at increased understanding of concepts such as photosynthesis, nutrient cycles and food webs along with increased appreciation and understanding of each person’s place within this aspect of the environment.
The session begins by playing games to awaken enthusiasm. Building a tree using children to play the tree’s parts, such as phloem, xylem and roots, awakens enthusiasm, according to Cornell’s Flow Learning and allows children to receive and remember phenomena, according to BRT. Meet a tree, where children take it in turns to guide each other in pairs, with one of the pair blindfolded, to a tree. After feeling the tree, the blindfolded child is guided back to the beginning and must find their tree when the blindfold is removed. This activity focuses the child’s attention onto the tree and allows the child to be affected by and to respond to the tree in order to start understanding it. The tree climb takes the child onto direct experience with the tree and reinforces the foundation levels of affective and cognitive learning. Through putting the activity into a framework with a context, a strong basis for analysing the activity can be set, from the perspective of the learning outcomes. The review moves the domains on to applying what they have learned and creating values.
“Whatever the size of the adventure, making connections before and afterwards helps to make it an adventure that is worthwhile and relevant” (Roger Greenaway, 1991).
Where is it going?
“the future is to be created, and before being created
it must be conceived, it must be invented and finally willed.”
(Bertstecher, cited in Lloyd, 2008)
Wouldn’t it be easier to build up a relationship with the environment if more time were spent there? By maximising the potential of the outdoors to enhance learning, children can discover there’s more to a landscape than one tree.
The flow learning pattern and many of Cornell’s activities can be done almost anywhere outdoors and by building a framework of learning around an adventurous activity a stimulating learning environment can be created. However, the smaller systems that children can be introduced to need to be developed. For example, water use and predators can be studied by looking in the local park and then expanded to include more remote locations such as a rock face or coastline. If the framework can be applied to more adventurous activities children can have more direct experiences with a wider variety and scale of environment. Understanding would then be from a wider perspective. The immensity of time and impact of different climatic conditions on the earth can be seen and understood through the rocks and soil of the landscape. The natural native landscape can be introduced to children in such a way that they feel connected to it both systemically and historically. Sparking the curiosity by looking at small insects and then drawing back to encompass new connections means the places that feel comfortable to explore will increase too. Exploring the environment then becomes a continuing journey towards building a relationship with the earth.
And so:
Instead of feeling overwhelmed by the enormity of ecological problems, today’s children will be compelled to affect the changes of the earth in order to sustain life.
In the future?
Dr. Simon Beams (Lecturer, Edinburgh University) is undertaking research into ‘Journeying’ with children in Edinburgh. His model of exploration, of gaining a confidence starting with a small area and expanding it, can be used to continually reconnect with the environment and so nurturing a relationship and continuing to create values around it.
He suggests that children learn about the environment they live in, starting with their immediate outdoor environment, the area that surrounds the school. The children then plan there own journeys around the local area before the scope is increased and public transport included. We suggest that this model could have implications for primary EfS and could become an integral part of the ROEE programme.
Conclusion
The ROEE programme run at SOEC is aimed at 10-12 year olds, an age at which children naturally focus on small aspects of their surroundings. Considering environmental education has raised consciousness but not changed behaviour patterns (Said et al. 2007), a new approach was tried. The challenge was to change behaviour patterns. By using the concept of Gaia as a basis and engaging children in such a way that facilitates their relationship with the earth can enhance their understanding of their role within it. This happens at a time in their life when they are starting to formulate their own values and beliefs, which influence actions and behaviour in later life. To make connections between their own behaviour and the world around them required an educational approach often overlooked at outdoor centres.
The use of Blooms Revised Taxonomy and Cornell’s Flow Learning means sessions can be structured starting with a concept familiar to the child, then expanded on to encompass more complex environmental concepts. The flow learning pattern and many of Cornell’s activities can be done almost anywhere outdoors and by building a framework of learning around an adventurous activity a stimulating learning environment can be created. The ROEE programme isn’t about memorising names, dates or processes; it is about working out why the world around us is important. It is hoped that this stimulation of higher level thinking and immersion in the environment will sink deeper into the child’s thinking and ultimately become ingrained in their decision making and actions in the future; sustaining the present conditions for life we have now and influencing the environment to create an earth that can sustain humans.
“Hills are always more beautiful than stone buildings, you know.
Living in a city is an artificial existence.
Lots of people hardly ever feel real soil under their feet,
see plants grow except in flower pots,
or get far enough beyond the street light to catch
the enchantment of a night sky studded with stars.
When people live far from scenes of the Great Spirit’s making,
it’s easy for them to forget his laws.”
(Walking Buffulo (Tatanga Mani),
1871-1967)
References
Forehand, M. (2005). Blooms Taxonomy: original and revised (accessed 5th September, 2008):
http://social.class.ncsu.edu/slatta/hi216/learning bloom.htm
http://projects.coe.uga.edu/eplitt/index.php?title
Bolsche, D. and Hauenschild, K. (2006). From environmental education to Education for Sustainable Development in Germany. Environmental Education Research 12(1): 7-18
Greenaway, R. (1991). More Than Activities. The Save The Children Fund. Glasgow
Hambler, C. (2006). Thank you for Gaia. British Ecological society, Vol. 37:3
Cornell, J. B. (1998). Sharing Nature with Children. Dawn Publications. USA
Kraft, R. (1985). Toward a theory of experiential learning. The Theory of Experiential Education. Boulder, CO
Littledyke, M. (2008). Science education for environmental awareness: approaches to integrating cognitive and affective domains. Environmental Education Research 14(1): 1-17
Lloyd, Z. (2008). A Proposal for Education for Sustainability: is the design of Utopias a supported solution. MSc Thesis. University of St. Andrews
Lovelock, J. (2000). Gaia: A new look at life on earth. OUP. UK
Lovelock, J. (1995). The Ages of Gaia. OUP. UK.
Priest, S. and Gass, M. A. (1997). Effective Leadership in Adventure Programming. University of New Hampshire.
Said, A.M., Yahaya, N. and Ahmadun, F.R. (2007). Environmental comprehension and participation of Malaysian secondary school students. Environmental Education Research 13(1): 17-31
United Nations General Assembly adopted Resolution 57/254. (2002). (accessed 5th September, 2008)
http://www.gdrc.org/sustdev/un-desd/index.html
